Hector McDonald Zoe

Hector Archibald Macdonald was one of the most famous British soldiers of the late 19th century. He had an outstanding reputation for great bravery. Sophie: At the age of 15, hector MacDonald was apprenticed in Dingwall to a draper, and when he was 17 he decided it was time to go into military life so he added a year on to his real age and he moved on to the Royal Clan Tartan and Tweed Warehouse In Inverness . He rose rapidly through the ranks and eventually became a major- general. He first saw action and was commissioned as an officer in the SecondAfghan War in the late 1870s, then distinguished himself in the battle of Majuba Hill in South Africa 1881. Zoe: After working In Britain and Ireland, he was sent to Egypt in 1884. Here he recruited and trained a load of Sudan soldiers that he led Into several victory battles. including one of the most legendary in British history, Omdurman. In 1902 the army sent MacDonald to India to take up a regional command, but he was there for only a short while before being moved to Ceylon as Commanding Officer of British forces.Sophie: But after only 11 months MacDonald was summoned and told he must return to England to answer very grave charges†. Although details still remain unclear, MacDonald was alleged to have committed sexual acts with four Ceylonese youths or to have exposed himself In a train carriage with 70 schoolboys but there Is still so solid proof that he was even gay. Zoe: The brilliant career of a national hero came to an end on the 25th March 1903. While serving in Ceylon grave charges of homosexuality were made against him.Having been sent to England on leave he was returning to Ceylon via Paris to face a court Marshall. In his hotel he read a New York Times report of the charges against him and in despair over it went to his room and committed suicide. Sophie: After his death It was uncovered that he had a secret wife and son. HIS widow arranged for her husband to be buried in secret at 6am on Monday 30th March in Dean Cemetery in Edinburgh. The public was shocked not only at the allegations but also at the arrangements of the funeral.On the first Sunday after his burial 30,000 people visited the grave. People queued for up to three hours to pay their respects and there were so many flowers that the superintendent of the cemetery refused to have any more placed. Zoe His wife Christina died in 1911 and was buried next to her husband. Their son, Hector became an engineer in North Shields. He was thought of as stern, gloomy and unsociable; he never married and became excluded from his surrounding community. He died in 1951 and is buried with his parents. IOFI sofi By sofldontcareSophie: At the age of 1 5, hector MacDonald was apprenticed in Dingwall to a draper, in Inverness . He rose rapidly through the ranks and eventually became a major- Afghan War in the late 1870s, then distinguished himself in the battle of MaJuba Hill Zoe: After working in Britain and Ireland, he was sent t o Egypt in 1884. Here he recruited and trained a load of Sudan soldiers that he led into several victory battles, youths or to have exposed himself in a train carriage with 70 schoolboys but there is Sophie: After his death it was uncovered that he had a secret wife and son. His

Eyewitness Testimony as a Source of Reliable Evidence

Eyewitness Testimony as a source of reliable evidence In relation to cognitive psychology, is eyewitness testimony reliable in today’s judicial system? Word Count: 3944 ABSTRACT Is eyewitness testimony a reliable source of evidence in today’s judicial system? Many jurors tend to pay close attention to eyewitness testimony assuming that what they hear is exactly as it happened. They ignore the psychology behind remembering an event. Our brain is a complex structure and it is difficult to absorb every stimulus in our surrounding. We pay great attention to some aspects of a situation while completely ignoring others. It is advisable for expert psychologists to be present during a court case that involves eyewitness testimony, as they are more aware of its flaws. We store information in schemas and when we gain new knowledge it is altered in order to fit these schemas. Leading psychologists such as Elizabeth Loftus, Neil Bartlett and Yullie & Cutshall have carried out research in order to demonstrate how our memory can be altered by psychological factors such as leading questions, reconstructive memory and weapon focus. This research paper contains a vast number of experiments and studies done in order to illustrate the unreliability of our memory and whether courts should rely on eyewitness testimony as a prime source. Age and gender also serve as factors that influence eyewitness testimony. Through research and analysis, it is concluded in this paper that eyewitness testimony should not be given superiority over other actual evidence presented, as our memory is the least reliable source. It is worthwhile to carry out further investigation about the case if eyewitness testimony is the only evidence available, as false testimonies could lead to an innocent individual being charged guilty. Word Count: 260 CONTENTS Abstract †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Page 2 Introduction †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Page 4 Discussion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 7 Misleading Questions†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 7 Anxiety and Stress†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Page 9 Weapon Focus†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 11 Reconstructive Memory†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 11 Confident Testimony†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 14 Age†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 15 Gender†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 16 Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Page 17 References †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Page 19 INTRODUCTION The reliability of eyewitness testimony has often been questioned in cases of crime and violence but yet the judicial syste m seems to ignore its flaws. Numerous psychologists have carried out experiments and studies regarding this issue. Eyewitness testimony has a large psychological background that judges, lawyers and the jury seem to ignore. Our ability to remember certain situations and events may be distorted according to the time and place that the event occurred or the time and place that the eyewitness testimony is given. Cognitive psychologists have carried out profound research about this phenomenon and have found that eyewitness testimony can be related to human schemas, reconstructive memory and our ability to remember. The knowledge we have gained from the world is stored in our brain as an organized package of information called a schema. The ‘schema theory’ states that the knowledge we have already gained through our life has a major influence on what we remember. According to Cohen (1986) as cited in Gross (64), the human mind uses past experiences in order to deal with new experiences. Our behavior is guided by the set of schemas that we have in our brain. The new experiences that we face are not just ‘replicated’ into our memory but instead are reconstructed in order to fit our schemas. The reconstruction of memory is an active process and happens throughout our life (Gross, 64). Therefore, how we perceive an event is strongly influenced by our past experiences. Human memory is seen as an unreliable source when we apply the idea of reconstructive and interpretative nature of memory to eyewitness testimony. The probability of people being wrongly accused increases as the importance of eyewitness testimony in the cases of accidents and crimes increases, and therefore the guilty do not come to justice (Gross, 64). Many experiments conclude that law professionals and judges rely and place their decisions on eyewitness testimony, however, researchers investigated on situations whereby the innocent had been accused. As cited in Miller’s article (2006), Gary Wells (1998) researched on forty such cases and with the help of DNA testing it was found that all forty convicted suspects were actually innocent. The witnesses wrongfully accused the suspects in thirty-six of these cases. The human brain has a limited capacity to deal with the incoming information but yet every moment we encounter a large variety of stimuli like sights, sounds and smells. However, as mentioned above if we encounter stimuli which conflict with our schemas, we reconstruct our memory in order to fit our chemas. The human brain therefore focuses on some aspects of the situation while ignoring the others in order to cope with the sensory barrage. This process of choosing stimuli is called selective attention. Eyewitnesses tend to collect information that relates to their interests and may ignore other vital aspects of the event (Glassman, 5). It is difficult for witnesses to reconsider their initial understanding once the y have stated facts in a specific way or have already indentified an individual as the performer, due to the reconstruction of their memory (e. . once an eyewitness recognizes an individual in a line-up it is likely for them to recognize the same individual in later line-ups even though that individual may not be the performer). Jury’s place great reliance on eyewitness testimony and ignore the dangers of false memories (Engelhardt, n. d). In view of these findings, this work will investigate the â€Å"extent to which eyewitness testimony is reliable in today’s judicial system† focusing on major factors that influence our memory and ability to remember. Cognitive psychology plays a major role in this investigation as it involves the idea of memory and schemas. DISCUSSION â€Å"An account given by people of an event they have witnessed† (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology) is usually referred to as an eyewitness testimony. One may be asked to recall the event they witnessed and describe what happened. Jury’s tend to find eyewitness testimony to be a reliable source of information and pay close attention to it, but the witness may have had a hard time remembering the event and the testimony could be inaccurate. Research done by a number of psychologists regarding eyewitness testimony found that it could be affected by many psychological factors such as leading questions, anxiety and stress, weapons and reconstructive memory (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). Factors such as age and gender could also affect the way in which individuals remember events. Influence of psychological factors on eyewitness testimony Misleading questions American psychologist, Elizabeth Loftus, represented the application of Cognitive psychology to the real world. Her experiments demonstrated how misleading information could cause eyewitnesses to reconstruct their memories (Gross, 64). A leading question is a question that contains information previously unknown to the witness. In one of her studies with Palmer (Loftus and Palmer, 1974) as cited in the article Memory (Psychology), the participants watched a videotape that showed an automobile accident consisting of two cars. After watching the videotape the participants were presented with a questionnaire whereby the question was altered for groups of participants. One question asked, â€Å"About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other? † For other participants the verb ‘hit’ was replaced by ‘smashed’, ‘collided’, ‘bumped’, or ‘contacted’. Even though all participants viewed the same videotape, their speed estimates differed considerably depending on how the question was asked. When the verb ‘contacted’ was used, the average speed estimate was 32 mph, when the verb was ‘hit’ it was 34 mph, 38mph when it was ‘bumped’, 39 mph when it was ‘collided’, and 41 mph when it was smash. Loftus carried out a follow up study a week later whereby she asked the participants whether there was any broken glass in the videotape. Participants that were presented with the verb ‘smashed’ were twice as likely to ‘remember’ any broken glass than the participants that were presented with the verb ‘hit’. The information that came in much later after the original event had occurred incorporated with that event, hence causing the original even to be remembered in a different way. The introduction of false signs misrepresented the participants’ memories (Memory (Psychology)). The power of misleading questions is demonstrated in the above study by Loftus & Palmer. An answer is determined by how the question is asked. The tendency to distort one’s memory of an event when later exposed to misleading information about it is known as the misinformation effect. The witness’s memory could be affected by questions asked by the police, friends or attorneys. Reconstruction of memory could also take place if information about the case or crime comes in weeks or months later. This may change what the witness has to say on the witness stand (Memory (Psychology)). The questions and information presented in the courtroom may cause the witness to remember the incident differently and the eyewitness testimony becomes inaccurate. Leading questions lead to the reconstruction of memory in order for the new information to fit into our already existing schemas. Leading questions therefore have the tendency to make eyewitness testimony unreliable in today’s judicial system. It is important for lawyers to know about the consequences of these questions and therefore construct their questions well. Anxiety and stress Along with leading questions it is said that anxiety and stress is a psychological factor that affects eyewitness testimony. Some researchers have questioned whether attentional focus is a reason that causes poor recall of a violent incident. Clifford and Scott (1978) as cited in the article Eyewitness Testimony Psychology, found that when individuals witness a rather violent incident they seem to remember less than individuals who witness a non-violent incident. They carried out a study whereby they presented a film with violent attacks to a group of participants. The control group who saw a less violent version of the film remembered more of the forty items about the event than the participants. The control group was not exposed to very stressful conditions as compared to the participants. Although this may have not been a real-life situation, the memory of the participants was affected by anxiety. An increase in anxiety and autonomic arousal is caused by violent incidents that in turn have a disadvantageous effect on memory. On the other hand, a study carried out by Yullie and Cutshall (1986) (as cited in the article Eyewitness Testimony Psychology) contradicts Clifford and Scott’s findings. The research gathered by Yullie and Cutshall was that of a real-life situation hence making their data more accurate. The researchers showed that individuals had accurate memories when they witnessed a stressful event up close. The event was of a shooting just outside a gun shop in Canada. The scene witnessed was of a criminal who robbed the gun shop off guns and money but eventually was shot six times and died on the spot. Straight after this shooting had taken place, the police asked to interview thirteen individuals who were there at the time of the event and had witnessed it. Five months later these same thirteen individuals were interviewed again. It was found that the recall was still as accurate as it was five months after witnessing the event. The two misleading questions that were presented by the police did not affect their memories or alter their testimony. However, one limitation to this study was that the witnesses interviewed were at different distances from the scene and the ones that were the closest went through a greater level of stress and this in turn may have assisted with their ability to remember the event vividly (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). Through both the studies carried out about anxiety and memory recall we can say that experiments carried out under laboratory conditions may not give the same results as when it is a real-life situation. Memory recall of a real-life situation is accurate even after a few months and the loaded questions do have as much of an effect as they do in laboratory experiments (e. g Loftus & Palmer, 1974) (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). The above information gives a re-assurance that eyewitness testimony is not completely unreliable depending on the situation and the witness’s role in the event. There may be some situations where memory distortions take place and other situations where they do not. Whether memory distortion or reconstruction takes place or not depends on the witness’s state of mind at the time of the event. The emotional state of the individual may cloud their reason, judgment and perception; therefore it is necessary to be neutral and unbiased when witnessing a crime scene. Weapon Focus The study by Yullie and Cutshall (1986) also relates to ‘weapon focus’ as a psychological factor that affects eyewitness testimony. When weapons are involved the witness is less likely to remember details about the riminal but is more likely to remember the details of the weapon (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). An experiment conducted by Johnson and Scott (1976) as cited in Loftus et al (56) illustrated this phenomenon. In the ‘no weapon’ condition participants overheard a mild conversation in the next room about an equipment failure, witne ssed a confederate enter the room with a grease pen, watched him utter a single line and leave. In the ‘weapon’ condition the participants overheard a violent conversation along with crashing objects, saw a confederate enter the room with a bloodied letter opener, watched him utter a single line and then leave. Participants in both condition witnessed the target individual for four seconds. It was found that 33% of the participants in the ‘bloody letter opener’ condition identified the culprit correctly and 49% of the participants in the greasy pen condition identified the culprit correctly. A reduced ability to remember the confederate was associated with the presence of a weapon. Jury’s should take into account whether or not weapons were involved in the crime. This is because the eyewitness will be less likely to recognize the criminal and an innocent individual may be held guilty. Our attention is usually drawn to the weapon and we ignore what else may be happening in our surroundings. Reconstructive Memory The reliability of eyewitness testimony can yet be argued through reconstructive memory. As mentioned earlier reconstructive memory is another one of the many psychological factors that has an effect on eyewitness testimony. Psychologist Neil Bartlett played a key role in associating reconstructive memory to eyewitness testimony as he stated that ‘recall is subject to personal interpretation dependent on our learnt or cultural norms and values’. We have already established the fact that the human memory alters according to the way in which we store information in our brain, it is not stored exactly as it seems to be; different people interpret a situation differently and therefore store it in a way that makes sense to them. The brain stores information in schemas, but these schemas are able to distort unconsciously ‘unacceptable’ and unfamiliar knowledge in order to ‘fit in’ with the already stored information or schemas that we have which n turn results in unreliable eyewitness testimony (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). Bartlett’s research about reconstructive memory found that â€Å"memory is an active process and subject to individual interpretation or construction† (Eyewitness Testimony Psychology). War of the Ghosts, (Bartlett (1932) as cited in Eyewitness Testimony Psychology) was his most famous study whereby he tried to show that we attempt to link what we remember with our e xisting schemas. In other words, our memory is not just an accurate footage of what has happened but it is what we make of it. Bartlett mentioned that we usually involuntarily modify our memories so they make more sense to us. In the study Bartlett’s participants heard a story and had to re-tell the story to another person. The story was a North American folktale called ‘The War of the Ghosts’. When the participants were asked to recount the details of the story, each individual seemed to tell it in their own individual way. As the participants re-told the story, it became shorter, puzzling ideas were rationalized or omitted altogether and details changed to become more conventional or familiar. The information about the ghosts was omitted as it was difficult to explain and participants recurrently recalled the idea of â€Å"not going because he hadn’t told his parents where he was going†, as that circumstance was more familiar to them. Through the above study Bartlett was able to conclude that our memory is distorted by the existing knowledge and schemas we have in the human brain. Therefore, it seems that each individual reconstructs their memory to conform to their individual values and attitudes towards the world. This is a clear indication that our memories are anything but reliable. How we view and remember things depends on our ethics, culture, belief and past experiences. Also through reconstructive memory we make hasty generalizations basing information on what we ‘think’ may have happened due to the information we already have stored. We shape and assemble the incident according to our stereotypes and expectations. This can further be elaborated through a study by Allport and Postman (1947) as cited in Jarvis & Russell (131), whereby they presented participants with a picture of a scruffy white man threatening a smart black man with a razor. Later when the participants were told to recall the picture they recalled that a scruffy black man was threatening a smart white man with a razor. This fitted in with the American stereotypes of that time; the participants reconstructed their memory according to their expectations. We can say that reconstructive memory is yet another reason that makes eyewitness testimony unreliable; however, some psychologists do believe that schema theory exaggerates the inaccuracy of memory. It cannot predict what and how people remember, as we do not know which schemas are being used. The study by Allport and Postman also ties down into another way our cognitive system introduces error, which is by the means of inference. Inference emphasizes on how humans tend to make assumptions past the literal meaning. Many memory distortions are a part of this inference whereby what the eyewitness says to have witnessed is not what was perceived but a mere extension of it, hence, leading to an inaccurate recall of the event or incident (Glassman, 440) Flaws of the eyewitness as an individual Confident Testimony Confident testimony is yet another flaw that tends to put innocent people in jail. When the witnesses say with absolute confidence that ‘this is the guy that did it†¦ I will never forget that face’, it is difficult to argue with their beliefs. Confidence is a strong characteristic and although people may make mistakes with their testimony the way in which they give their testimony has a strong outcome on the jury. It becomes difficult to question their evidence and discredit their feelings after knowing that the witness went through a horrible crime especially when they give their testimony with absolute assurance. Jurors will usually believe them. A major flaw that Elizabeth Loftus points out is that judges do not usually use the help of experts in order to bear out to the jury about the flaws of eyewitness testimony. It would be helpful to have a few cognitive psychologists as part of the jury in order to point out the factors that affect eyewitness testimony; however some judges will allow this while others will not. Jury’s that are unaware of the flaws of eyewitness testimony will have a larger percentile of wrongful verdicts compared to jury’s that are educated about he flaws. Elizabeth Loftus went on to explain that jury’s that are unaware of memory distortions will tend to decide their verdict from their ‘gut feeling’. Jury’s that are ignorant about these flaws rely greatly on the witness and have a propensity to discount the balance that needs to be present between the eyewitness testimony and the physical scientific evidence. Loftus also pointed out that when a witness repeatedly sees the accused they become encrypted in the victim’s memory, even if they are innocent. The victim may continually see the suspect in photos and line-ups during the duration of the investigation period and court case. This may make it possible that the witness will then not be able to recognize the true criminal anymore, especially if the crime was witnessed for a short time and the victim was not able to perceive every stimulus in the surrounding. Therefore, when the witness will testify with absolute confidence that the ‘suspect’ is the actual criminal, it will be difficult for the jury to argue (Miller, 2006). Age Psychological factors definitely play a huge role in eyewitness testimony but the characteristics of the witness also matter. Jury’s should also take into account the age and gender of the witness. Certain research has been done in order to identify the accuracy of a child’s eyewitness testimony; it is much less accurate than the adults’ testimony. This is because children are not able to give concrete answers to the questions that require much explanation. Children have less cognitive competence i. e. their information processing skills for problem solving, language and attention are undeveloped. Psychologists from University of Southampton conducted research to analyze a child’s ability to answer repeated questions during a testimony. When a child gives a testimony they are afraid to be incorrect therefore repeated questions are not beneficial when it comes to child eye-witnessing as the questions confuse them and make them think that their original story was not true. The first information provided by the child is always the best. The younger the child is, the less accurate the testimony will be. Children usually give incorrect information due to their need to be socially approved. Karpel et al (2001) as cited in Science Aid carried out research associated with age and eyewitness testimony. His aim was to see how reliable eyewitness testimony is in older people. Young adults (17 – 25) and older adults (65 – 85) were shown a video of a theft. They were then asked to recollect what they had seen in the video. The results of both age groups were compared and it was seen that the information provided by the young adults was more precise and their testimony was less likely to change when asked leading questions.. In order to ensure that information provided by elderly people is accurate it is advisable not to expose them to misleading questions as their memories are easily distorted. Also, older adults misremember context and therefore must be questioned carefully. As seen, age is another factor that affects eyewitness testimony and its reliability. It is important to know the age of the witness before moving on with the case as psychologists may have a slight idea about how reliable the provided information might be (Science Aid). Gender There has been no concrete evidence as yet that males and females have a significant difference when identifying a criminal. Research by Shapiro & Penrod (1986) as cited in Wells & Olson (280) found that females are more likely to make accurate identifications but are also more likely to make false identifications, as they are more likely to try and ‘attempt’ to identify. Due to this males and females capitulate an equal ability to identify criminals and give an eyewitness testimony. However since the male and female brains differ slightly, both genders will pay closer attention to different features of the incident, but the overall ability in eyewitness identification is impossible to tell apart. CONCLUSION Through research we have found that eyewitness testimony can be quite fallible and that there are a number of factors that seem to interfere with our memories. It is important for jury’s to be aware of these factors before placing a verdict and should not place great reliance on factors such as confidence and vivid descriptions of details. If possible, it is advisable o find other evidence rather than eyewitness testimony. A major limitation of the research investigated is that majority of the studies done in relation to eyewitness testimony are laboratory studies. This inhibits us to generalize the data collected to the real world. An implication for future research would be to carry out more interviews with individuals who have witnessed acts of crim e and violence rather than basing conclusions on laboratory studies. Also, it could be helpful to carry out research regarding a number of factors that affect eyewitness testimony (e. g. study that compares the ability to remember events when the variables are age, gender, weapons and misleading questions). The limitation presented does not change the fact that human memory is a very personal and comparative aspect and therefore cannot be a foundation for any important decisions. It is important to know that memory changes with time and every consequent attempt to recall the event will be just another skewed interpretation of the event. Eyewitnesses can refute or support the general facts about the case but the details and their testimony should not be put superior to the actual evidence presented in court. Studies have also proven that innocent people have been accused due to eyewitness testimony, this elaborates on the unreliability of it. Our ability to recall an event is affected by the information provided after the event, the level of stress and anxiety we are at during the time of the event also affects it, the presence of weapons also distorts our memory, reconstructive memory is yet another psychological factor that makes eyewitness testimony unreliable, our expectations, age and gender also play a role when giving a testimony. All these factors should be taken into consideration when the evidence provided is eyewitness testimony. The reliability of eyewitness testimony in today’s judicial system is very low and should be analyzed in depth before reaching conclusions. REFERENCES Engelhardt, L. (n. d. ). â€Å"The problem with Eyewitness Testimony†. Agora. Retrieved Jan. 02, 2010 from http://agora. stanford. edu/sjls/Issue%20One/fisher&tversky. html. Eyewitness Testimony Psychology research. (2007). Psychology Degree and A-level online resources. Retrieved Feb. 2, 2010 from http://www. simplypsychology. pwp . blueyonder. co. uk/eyewitness-testimony. html Glassman, William E. (2000). Approaches to Psychology. Buckingham, England: Open UP. Gross, Richard D. (1999). Key Studies in Psychology. London: Hodder & Stoughton. Jarvis, M. , & Russell, J. (2002). Key Ideas in Psychology. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. Loftus, E. F. , Loftus, G. R. , & Messo, J. (1987). Some facts about weapon focus. Law and H uman Behaviour. Memory (psychology) – MSN Encarta. (n. d. ). Retrieved Sept. 14, 2009 from http://encarta. msn. om/encyclopedia_761578303_5/Memory_(psychology). html Miller, Z. (2006, October 14). The Accuracy of Eye Witness Testimony and Its Flaws. Retrieved December 23, 2009, from http://ezinearticles. com/? The- ­Accuracy- ­of- ­Eye- ­Witness- ­Testimony- ­and- ­Its- ­Flaws&id=328261 Science aid: Eyewitness Testimony. (n. d. ) Science Aid: High School, A Level and GCSE Science. Retrieved 13 Dec. 2009 from http://scienceaid. co. uk/psychology/cognition/eyewitness. html Wells, Gary L. , & Olson, Elizabeth A. (2003). Eyewitness Testimony. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University.

Marketing Promotional Mix Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Marketing Promotional Mix - Essay Example The message must be comprehensible, concise, enlightening and communicative, because this will help to make certain that mothers understand your offering. 1.2 Defining a need the product or service can fulfill Underlying the importance of the Heart Monitor in the best possible manner would create a need in the minds of the customers. Persuasive messages would help more in the cause. The goal would be to convince mothers that the product will provide the best value to them, compared to the competitors. This can be supported by giving competitive pricing and other customer oriented benefits. You may also want to create an urgent demand by proffering limited time offers and other attractive offers. 1.3 Encouraging action from the target: Once you have created an awareness of the product and persuaded the target market, now it is the time to compel them to purchase the product. All the efforts to persuade the customers and to create awareness would go in vain if the customer does not mak e a purchase. It is very important to inform the customers about the product so that they patronise your brand and become a core buyer and make a repurchase. (Alyn, 2009) 2. Promotional Mix 2.1 Advertising Advertising is defined as any paid form of non-personal promotion of products and services by a sponsor. The Heart monitor can be advertised on print and broad media. Although, it can be very expensive, it allows the company to dramatise its products through the artful use of print, sound and color. By placing the ad in different medium the company would get a chance to unleash the product whole heartedly into the market. The customers would get to view the product and would see the various attributes, features and benefits of it. Advertising would enable Mothercare to recur a message numerous times, and would let the buyer receive and evaluate the ad and the underlying messages of various competitors. The ad should be clearly planned out and should be a breakthrough ad; it should be the one which would successfully break the clutter. For this purpose, most organisations take the services of a creative agency which aims at bring the advertising message strategy to life in a distinctive and memorable way. A creative ad would help to build a long-term image for Baby Heart Monitor. It would also trigger quick sales as a result. 2.2 Public Relations Public Relations is defined as building excellent relations with the company's assorted publics or stakeholders by acquiring constructive and positive publicity, strengthening a high-quality communal representation and managing and resolving inauspicious hearsays, anecdotes and events. The Public Relations (PR) department at Mothercare can use many different tools to promote the Baby Heart Monitor; Mothercare can call press and media before launching their product by creating and placing interesting information in the news medium to catch the attention of attention to a person, product or service. Product Publicity i s a free form of promotion and it takes the goodwill of the brand coupled with its image to get publicised. Mothercare can use its goodwill to allow various TV channels into publicising specific products via documentaries and infotainment news. Mothercare can make full use of its positive image, and the goodwill to build and maintain local, national and international relations. Mothercare can also build and maintain relations with legislators and government officials to influence legislation

Volkswagen Strategic Position Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Volkswagen Strategic Position - Essay Example Volkswagen entered with a share of ownership of 50% for production and sell of cars in the markets of Greater China. Subsequently in 1991, Volkswagen expanded its operations with a second joint venture in the name of FAW-Volkswagen Automotive Company Ltd. The markets of Greater china are one of the major markets of the German automobile group. By 2004, the German automaker group has laid its strong foundation to forms its subsidiary by the name of Volkswagen Group China. The company is governed by a six member committee of senior management. The senior management is responsible for corporate governance and supervision of the group in Greater China. The members of the governing body are accountable for several divisions of the operations and management that include sales and marketing, finance, operations, personnel and government relations, technology, etc. By focusing on these key areas and strengthening its strategic position in Greater China, the Volkswagen Group China today has s ixteen offices that are spread across the country that caters to the automobile markets. Volkswagen over the years has not generated huge scales of revenue from the sell of cars in the markets of Greater China but is also a key contributor to the rapid pace of growth of the economy of China. The members of the governing body in Greater China are not only responsible for the supervision of its operations but also look at the opportunities for new investments for expansion of the markets of the group. Volkswagen group in China has expanded its volume of production of cars over the years with the optimal use of resources of production. The volume of sales of Volkswagen Group China has reached around 2.81... This essay stresses that since the entry of VW in China it has become the largest Automobile Company in the country. One of the biggest reasons of success of VW has been the choice of market entry strategy which happened to be JV. This helped the company to reduce the environmental risks and set up effective distribution network in the country. As a result China has become the second largest market for VW after VW. Volkswagen has very few weaknesses. Some of them have been discussed in this section. Has relatively low amount of new technology and skills over the competitors. The management of the company is also quite old. One of the major opportunities has been the entry of China into WTO which has opened up the economy inviting a lot more investment opportunities. Another major opportunity has been the growth of the Chinese automobile market. This paper makes a conclusion that the company should focus on augmentation through augmented services such as make to order sales programs to gain customers trust and market share. Volkswagen and the JV partners may have to invest a lot more to boost up the out capacity and to increase sales in China. In future Volkswagen may have to use china as the base or hub to explore the Asian market. Already Volkswagen has made it clear about plans to export cars made in China to different Asian countries. This may help the company to lower the cost and improve quality.

Classify and categorize various careers in hospitality field Essay

Classify and categorize various careers in hospitality field - Essay Example The current global economy based on integration and free trade is expected to further transform growth in the industry. With rising economic integration through globalization, careers in hospitality have increasingly provided flexibility in the country of operation, especially in chains of hospitality firms which exist in various countries. Chuang has pointed out that following the development of hotel industry, the bar for skilled personnel has gone up substantially (14). The industry arguably experiences the greatest diversity of knowledge assets compared to other professions. Careers in the hospitality industry can be classified into: food and beverage handling, front office management, housekeeping, sales and promotion, accounting, maintenance among others (Ladkin and Weber 385). The current world has witnessed a sharp increase in business activity, resulting to more business and holiday travels, hence more careers in the sector. Eligibility The eligibility for various careers in the hospitality industry ranges from diploma certificates higher learning institutions to university degrees (Chuang 15). Depending on the nature of the organization, Hotel and Restaurant management, Casino management, Cruise Ship Hotel Management, Airline Catering and Cabin Services, Administration and catering for health facilities and education or training institutions, Hotel and Tourism, Lodges, and Guest Houses are some of the avenues that can be exploited by those keen on pursuing a career in the hospitality industry. Trained persons may also open businesses for self-employment in order to realize their economic dreams. Generally, Zahari et al (69) have pointed out that careers in the hospitality industry can be grouped in to several categories namely: Operations, Customer Care, Cuisine services, Bookkeeping, Maintenance, Sales and Promotion, Security, and House-keeping. General Operations A General Manager is usually responsible for the coordination and management of human r esources, financial management, service provision, and projection of the company image through the front office, and quality control (Zahari et al 78-91). Depending on the nature and size of the organization, general managers often have subordinate managers working in various departments to complement their effort. Front Office careers Chuang has noted that front office is the nerve center of all operations in the service-based hospitality industry (14). Important operations such as receiving the visitors, making reservations for rooms and conference halls, managing correspondence and processing bills as well as maintaining records of the services rendered to guests are usually processed at the department (Chuang 16). In most cases, the front office manager is often in charge of the supervision and co-ordination of the processes. Subordinates to the front office manager may include an Assistant Manager, front office executive, lobby manager, information staff, receptionist, bell cap tain, and doorman among others. The responsibilities of these staffs may vary from one facility to another. House Keeping careers According to Zhong, Couch and Blum (10), house-keepers are usually charged with ensuring that the facility, the rooms, the hallways, bars, the restaurants, and the compounds among other places are kept tidy. House-keeping careers mainly involve ensuring the comfort of the

Kindly see the instruction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Kindly see the instruction - Essay Example beliefs, as well as the many testimonies from couples of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered community (LGBT), judges and citizens alike are looking to overturn the Defense Against Marriage Act, which would allow gay couples to have the same federal benefits as their heterosexual counterparts. On March 27, 2013, the members of the Supreme Court gathered to hear the testimonies, fears, and concerns that both opposers and proponents of gay marriage had. Those that oppose gay marriage, specifically those that allowed California’s Proposition 8, which would ban gay marriage and overturn the marriages that had been conducted previously, made their side of the argument known that marriage is a union that has always been available only to men and women. Though they could find no consequences of people within the LGBT community becoming legally married, they continued to argue that to allow them the chance to marry would go against the very definition of marriage. The proponents for gay marriage, a large following that consists of homosexuals and heterosexuals alike, simply believe that under the freedom that America stands for they should be allowed to marry someone they love. After the first day of hearing testimonies, members of the Court also had their say about their own stances in regard to gay marriage. Justice Anthony Kennedy, who is â€Å"seen as the swing vote between liberal and conservative justices† (Dymond, par. 8), is less concerned about the marriage debate itself and more concerned about whether or not the federal government had the authority to legalize and then ban gay marriage in California. Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg believes that there should be two separate types of marriage, a full marriage for heterosexual couples and what is referred to as the skim-milk marriage for homosexuals. There were other members, though, we were not as neutral. Elena Kagan found that the Defense Against Marriage Act was written and enforced out of

Rituals Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Rituals - Essay Example Despite so many differences the essence of marriage remains same in all religions and that essence is the essence of love and emotions that bride and groom hold for each other and the essence of starting a new life. Attending Christian marriages has always been of interest to me. Christian marriages and their rituals always seemed pleasing to me. The ‘dress’ of the bride, the ‘church’, the ‘vows’ and the ‘flowers’ always appealed me. I always knew that this ceremony holds a deep essence and the rituals performed during the ceremony were based on moral and religious principles. The curiosity to know what all the rituals in Christian marriages hold and what message does it give to the couple, their parents and guests made me interested to study their marriage, understand their rituals and critically comment on them. Belonging to a different religion and studying the rituals of a marriage from a different religion culture would give an opportunity to observe them critically, and to do this, attending a Christian marriage was important. Making a deep study by observation, gathering information from the practitioners and later consulting to what others have said about the rituals of Christian marriages would help to explore the essence and principles of this marriage. I was told that Christian weddings are expression of joy, worship, respect, dignity and love. What I wanted to examine in this wedding was how these emotions are expressed in this marriage and through what means. I was there at the wedding day. All the guests were invited to the church were the ceremony was going to be held, but this is something of pre-conceived information which I already had, knowing something beyond this was of my interest. I will start with the seating arrangement. Family relatives were sitting to the right side of the church. The

Questions2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Questions2 - Essay Example However, it opens room for unscrupulous short term currency traders with the aim of inflating the conversion rate for personal gains. Such challenges may lead to losses for businesses operating in countries with a weak currency thus allowing for the monopoly. The short term financial selling can be reduced by financial market players with the ability to control the currency conversion rates based on the globally agreed rates and competition. The foreign exchange and financial market are vital in improving business efficiency because they affect the revenue and expenditure of business in relation to the exchange rates (Mendleson, 2012, p. 123). Efficiency is improved when the foreign exchange market is stable leading to price stability in the product and service market. The success of businesses globally depends heavily on the foreign exchange market. Therefore, the foreign exchange market is vital in the global success of businesses because it affects revenue and expenditure. The suc cess of foreign exchange market is revealed on the global success of the businesses based on other factors affecting globalization. The currency conversion rate is a vital factor in international business operations. Question three Currency crisis and the default crisis are related especially in the developing country. Normally, the currency crisis precedes the default crisis indicating the relationship between the two crises. The sudden drop in the exchange rate of a currency leads to serious challenge in the financial market which in turn affects the business operations in the country. In order to avert currency conversion crisis, countries must ensure that then conversion rates are maintained at a stable price which increases trust in the currency and improves the development of the necessary capital stability. In order to avert a currency conversion crisis, the country must evaluate it paper money value and maintain at a stable equilibrium (Boone & Kurtz, 2011, p. 96). Industria l countries tend to ignore the impact of the global currency conversion rate, which in turn affects their performance globally. Countries must engage in the global currency trade and ensure that the stability of the local currency is achieved. The achievement of currency conversion stability will avert default crisis and ensure success in the global market. The use of sovereign credit rating will improve the stability in the currency conversion rates which in turn leads to reduction of currency crisis. Sovereign credit rating plays an integral role in the determination of the extent to which countries have access to the international capital markets (Sorrells, 2012, p. 115). However, changes in the sovereign credit rating should not be viewed as the indicator of the existence or future occurrence of a currency crisis. In conclusion, default crisis can be averted by controlling currency crisis. Question five The derivatives market is a financial market based on derivative factors and financial instruments. These instruments include future contracts or options obtained from other forms of assets. The market is divided in to two namely exchange-traded derivatives and over-the-counter derivatives. Tailor-made derivatives cannot be traded on the future exchange market but are traded on Over-the-counter markets. They consist of investment banks with clients such as the hedge funds, government

Final scenerio analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Final scenerio analysis - Essay Example Based on the Global Enterprise, we take an analysis of the case facts and ethical issues concerning the enterprise’s operations (Nakmwil, 2012). In addition, we also take into account the ethical alternatives and recommendations the business has at their disposal in order to survive the legal accusations they have (Nakmwil, 2012). Case facts Global enterprise international (GEI) is a military contractor charged with the responsibility of manufacturing protective body armor, ammunition equipments and armored vehicles that are all useful during military operations (Nakmwil, 2012). The company has employed 140 workers who are all highly paid union technicians, mechanics, union members and Armor workers (Nakmwil, 2012). For the United States military, Global Enterprise International manufactures body flask jackets, night vision riflescopes and armored tank vehicles (Nakmwil, 2012). Contrary to the spelt out international laws and treaties, Global Enterprise International also part icipates in the manufacturing of land mine explosives (Nakmwil, 2012). The company’s best customers for the illegal land mines products are Afghanistan and Iran (Nakmwil, 2012). Based on these sales, more than half the company’s profits come from these stealthy operations (Nakmwil, 2012). ... For instance, the flak jackets do not effectively protect military soldiers as required from personal ammunition (Nakmwil, 2012). In addition, the night vision rifles produced by the company in many cases end up causing severe injuries and deaths to the users while in combat situations (Nakmwil, 2012). Besides, armored vehicles despite having strong sides and tops, the composition comprises solely of a single thin sheet layer emended on the undersides (Nakmwil, 2012). This makes them very vulnerable and weak to IED (Improvised Explosive Device) explosives (Nakmwil, 2012). Despite all these modifications, the inclusion of superior and quality materials in the flak jackets are capable of effectively preventing the unnecessary injuries encountered when utilizing fake products produced by the company (Nakmwil, 2012). However, Global Enterprise International spitefully declines altering their materials because this would cost the company a fortune and probably at the end lose the contract (Nakmwil, 2012). In addition, most of the landmines sold by the company to the Taliban in Afghanistan and Iran are not effective (Nakmwil, 2012). Those who attempted to plant the mines died in the process as they contained faulty switches. Later on, United States military realized numerous flaws characterizing these jackets, night vision rifles and armored vehicles, which it purchased from Global Enterprises International (Nakmwil, 2012). The United States justice department initiated legal investigations and the families of the deceased military members followed suit (Nakmwil, 2012). They also started forming mass actions and filing lawsuits against the concerned company. A

Impact of Unemployment in Economics Essay Example for Free

Impact of Unemployment in Economics Essay There are many people who are looking for jobs but cannot find them mostly because of the slow economic growth rate in the country. South Africa faces structural unemployment where people loose their jobs due to introduction of new technology or relocation of the company, these economic disruptions have resulted in high crime rates, low production and income as well as lost human capital. The NDP has been put in place to solve the problem of unemployment, and if supported well there can be job creation because they promise on expanding work programme, reduce costs of doing business and support entrepreneurship. Body South Africa faces the greatest challenge of a very high unemployment rate, which is highly influenced by the slow growth of the country hence resulting in slow employment growth as well (Parkin et al, 2010:449). Unemployment has been defined in two forms: a narrow definition and a broad definition. The narrow definition of unemployment is the official definition of unemployment and it states that an unemployed person is a person who is willing to work and is making an effort to find a job, Parkin et al, states that â€Å"To be counted as unemployed, a person must be available to work†¦must want to work and have made specific efforts to find a job or taken steps to start a business† (Parkin et al, 2010:495), but the broad definition of unemployment also includes the discouraged workers because they are people who are willing to work but have not been making an effort to find a job in the previous month mostly because they cannot find the jobs (Parkin et al, 2010:495). The business cycle of a country also influences the employment and unemployment rates, for example during a recession period there are high unemployment rate and during expansion there are lower unemployment rates (Lipsey et al, 1999:726). Unemployment is classified into three types; i) Frictional, ii) Structural, iii) Cyclical. Frictional unemployment has been explained as â€Å"The unemployment that arises from normal labour turnover – from people entering and leaving the labour force and from the ongoing creation and destruction of jobs† (Parkin et al, 2010:501). The structural unemployment refers to the more crucial and enduring restrictions on worker mobility, Parkin et al, explains it as â€Å"The unemployment that arises when changes in the technology or international competition change the skills needed to perform jobs or change in locations of jobs† (Parkin et al, 2010:502). Cyclical unemployment is influenced by the business cycle where a recession will increase unemployment and an expansion will decrease unemployment (Lipsey et al, 1999:726). South Africa suffers from Structural unemployment to a greater extent because it affects the economic structure of the whole economy especially due to introduction of new technologies and skills needed to cope with competition from the other countries, South Africa has gone global in the business sector therefore it needs to be upgrading its technology and skills to match its competitors. Unemployment is calculated as the number of unemployed people expressed as a percentage of the labour force, where labour force is the number of unemployed people plus number of employed people (Parkin et al, 2010:502). Number of people unemployed Unemployment = X 100 Labour Force Statistics in South Africa show that â€Å"In Q4:2008, there were approximately 3. 9 million people unemployed in South Africa and during the financial and economic crisis, the level of unemployment climbed rapidly, reaching a peak of 4. million in Q1:2010† (Labour Force Survey 2012), this can be best explained as f luctuation of job creation because, during a recession when the country is facing economic hardships the number of jobs shrinks and this influences a spike in the unemployment rate (Parkin et al, 2010:449). The unemployment rate in South Africa will never drop to zero because it is a developing country and does not have a very high Gross Domestic Product which is â€Å"†¦the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given time period† (Parkin et al, 2010:468), when GDP is low, there is an increase in unemployment because there are few goods produced there for a limited labour force is needed to produce the few goods. The number of unemployed people rose to 4. 5 million in Q2:2011, but declined during the second half of 2011, In Q1:2012, the number of unemployed people rose by 282 000, reaching 4. 5 million, which is the same level observed in Q2:2011† (Labour Force Survey 2012). Unemployment is a major issue in South Africa and the only way to manage it is by increasing our entrepreneurial strategy, supporting Small and Medium Enterprises as well as being united as a nation (Ramaphosa 2012). Job creation is not just a strategy to deal with unemployment but it is also going to eradicate poverty and this will increase the living conditions of every South African citizen. Mr Ramaphosa notes that unemployment is hindering our endeavor to eradicate poverty and also reduce the inequality gap (Ramaphosa 2012). The National Development Plan (NDP) which was produced in 2011 by the National Planning Commission has been put in place as strategy to deal with unemployment and Mr Ramaphosa explains that â€Å"It envisages the creation of 11 million jobs by 2030, and a reduction in levels of unemployment from about 25% to 6%† (Ramaphosa 2012). The NDP plans on involving the government as well as the labour sector to play a role, an expansion of the public works programme is going to help reduce unemployment because it will be offering work experiences and skills to those people who are unemployed. Minimizing the cost of doing business helps small companies to get into business and also employ people to work; the NDP also states that tax subsidy will be granted to businesses to minimize the cost of recruiting young people (NDP Summary 2011), this will result in job creation and hence unemployment is reduced. Unemployment affects the whole country because due to unemployment there will be low standard of living Mr Ramaphosa explains that employment is the core of humanity (Ramaphosa 2012), when unemployment is high crime rates tend to increase as well because need to earn a living, so since they cannot find jobs they resort to robbery, drug trafficking and prostitution, this helps explain the high crime rates and HIV Aids rate in South Africa. Economically unemployment leads to loss of production therefore low GDP because there are no people who can work to help make more products; there is also lack and underutilization of human capital when there are high rates of unemployment (Parkin et al, 2010:468). Conclusion The NDP has been put in place to help manage unemployment in South Africa and if it gets support from everyone 11 million jobs will be created by 2030. Unemployment increases crime rates and hence need to be managed properly. The government plans on reducing the costs of doing business and that way there can be creation of employment, the works programme is also going to be sed to provide skills to people who do not have jobs, and above all education for all has to be achieved so as to eradicate unemployment and hence poverty.

Causes And Prevention Of Child Abuse Social Work Essay

Causes And Prevention Of Child Abuse Social Work Essay Many difficulties stem from the victims that have faced and will face child abuse and neglect on a daily basis. The research into the root causes, effects, intervention, and prevention of child abuse and neglect has become abundant to the point, that it is unclear as to which approach would be most successful in curbing the tide of child violence and neglect. A thorough analysis of the research that is currently available helped to enable finding options for addressing the problem, how early prevention works, warning signs to look out for, and effective programs developed for schools. To properly evaluate how effective the current wellness programs in preventing or treating victims of child abuse and neglect, it is important to first define what the issue entails. Each State provides its own definitions of child abuse and neglect based on minimum standards set by Federal law. Federal legislation lays the groundwork for States by identifying a minimum set of acts or behaviors that def ine child abuse and neglect (Child Welfare Information Gateway). An essential aspect of the Federal government, in this sense, is to define the laws broadly so that the states can make more stringent regulations as they see fit. The Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act as amended by the Keeping Children and Families Safe Act of 2003, defines child abuse and neglect as, at minimum: Any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation; or an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm (Ibid). Uniting a movement to improve programs and literature so the issue can be prevented from occurring to a child is paramount to a youths development in any region of the world. It is therefore extremely important to note the issues early, so that possible victims and caretakers can be proactive versus reactive. Examination of child abuse and neglect victims in the field of psychology has shown that, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦problems with self-management, impulse control, frequent anger outbursts, substance abuse, developmental delays, antisocial [behavior], [as well as] difficulty with concentrating in school and symptoms of psychopathology, for example, depression, psychotic disorder (Christoffersen DePanfilis, 2009, p. 32). These symptoms cannot always be avoided, no matter what treatment is applied later, which is the reason that early education is crucial. Developing a holistic approach to treat such conditions early on and to continue to monitor, as well as, educate participants is definitely the best route to take, but it can also be expensive and possibly unaffordable. Research Figures Statistics about child abuse and neglect victims help lay a foundation of what factors are in the equation in order for appropriate policy, regulations, and campaigns to be produced. Mogans Christoffersen and Diane DePanfilis journal article, Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect and Improvements in Child Development (2009), studied whether an improvement in mental development of children could be enriched by the reduction of certain abuse and neglect conditions. Their research indicated that, 70 percent of children in the study who had been exposed to physical abuse were exposed to psychological maltreatment as well, while 73 percent of the children who had not been exposed to physical abuse did not experience psychological maltreatment (Christoffersen DePanfilis, 2009, p. 31). Another even more concerning topic is the underreporting with some of the conditions or stimuli found in their research. They found that, child abuse and neglect on the basis of recorded files may underestim ate the number of abused children in the community, (Ibid, p. 37) because of the ramifications of such actions. Child victims can sometimes fear reporting because of not wanting to get in trouble, as well as, adults that fear that they could cause a child to be taken away from his or her family. Preparedness for addressing these types of frequently asked questions should be a key aspect of treatment for victims. The article indicated that a comprehensive assessment should specify the treatment because different types of abuse and neglect require different types of interventions (Ibid, p. 38). Maltreatment of children has numerous more categories than just abuse or neglect. Therefore, a tailored treatment to the situation needs to be used; otherwise the intervention part of treatment will be inadequate. Policymakers and researchers have found that child abuse affects the development of a number of mental and physical factors in a child, which may not be apparent at first glance. While physical abuse might be the most visible sign, other types of abuse, such as emotional abuse or child neglect, also leave deep, long lasting scars (Saisan, Smith, Segal, 2010). It was found that, our failure as a nation to implement effective policies and strategies to prevent child abuse and neglect costs taxpayers $104 billion per year and does not consider the personal toll on the victimized child (Hmurovich, 2009, p. 12). In these studies, it became apparent that the effects of not attempting to discuss this issue more have adversely affected all of the stakeholders involved. It is therefore within the best interest of the United States, as well as, many countries around the world to be more mindful of the problem. The old adage, timing is everything is crucial to the matter of early intervention and prevention services. A reason for this is, the earlier abused children get help, the greater chance they have to heal from their abuse and not perpetuate the cycle (Saisan, Smith, Segal, 2010). What may shock many people about this issue is the people that are generally involved in these matters already know each other. About, 95 percent of the sexual abuse of youngsters is done by family members, those who work with children, or those who know them. Current information indicates that strangers essentially make up about 5 percent of the reported documented cases (Friedman, 2010). The stigma that ensues for parents of child abuse victims is that they do want their childs past to follow them around for the rest the childs life. Caretakers and parents of many children might prefer to use alternative methods to resolve the matter in a private way so as to not have it show up anywhere on the childs per sonal record (Ibid). This form of underreporting unfortunately allows the criminal to continue to repeat his or her actions and not get punished (Ibid). It is the responsibility of the community to be a sort of checks and balances to counteract this type of disregard for the greater good of their municipality. Putting research into action, enough to make a significant difference, is the next logical step for thwarting child abuse and neglect. An abused childs life can be and will be forever changed after the action that occurs. Much of the research in academia about the matter, [shows] a strong correlation between child abuse and neglect and debilitating and chronic health consequences, delinquency, criminal behavior, mental health illness, drug dependency and lower academic performance (Hmurovich, 2009, p. 12). The result is a child that has unnecessary issues, which could have been avoided with earlier treatment. In the United States, abuse and neglect is a high enough concern, for the general populace, that it justifies talking and working with families and providers about what they can do. Emotional distress from unpermitted behavior of a penalizing adult or older child always causes deep impacts in the community at large (Friedman, 2010). The community has to therefore communicate wit h children at different stages in the education process. Addressing the Problems A multifaceted approach of, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦child abuse and neglect prevention must be understood uniformly and the message must be to prevent child abuse and neglect from ever happening. To implement a national child abuse and neglect prevention policy, it is essential that funding streams be assessed and then realigned (Hmurovich, 2009, p. 12). After finding where and how much cash will be needed to provide the solutions to the problem it is necessary to make a strategic plan of how to implement the changes. An integral part of the strategic plan should be training community members, specifically youths, in ways to be sensitive to the problems of child abuse and neglect. Training methods can be divided into two distinct groups: information-based approaches and behavioral skills training programs. In information-based approaches information is presented verbally by the trainer or through the use of a video, play, or activity book (Kopp Miltenberger, 2009, p. 193). In information-bas ed training the material that children learn include, how to prevent attacks or abuse, and then are tested to see if they retained the information (Ibid). The other approach known as behavior skills training seeks to see how well a child has retained information by having them perform specific actions. Children in behavioral skills training programs are presented with similar information; however, behavioral skills training programs emphasize active rehearsal of skills by the participants (Kopp Miltenberger, 2009, p. 193). At the moment, there is no foolproof method to determining which families in communities are at higher risk for child abuse and neglect (McCurdy, 1995). There are no social, economic, gender, racial, or political barriers that can properly be correlated or connected with the type of person that will commit such behavior. Since the act of abusing a child seems to cross all barriers; it becomes paramount to find ways to strongly address this issue. Coordinated efforts have been established to try and see if there is a connection between any particular groups of people other than by demographic. The results were definitive, but are not quite as simple to recognize as a standard indicator. A plethora of, theoretical models exist that suggest that certain personal, familial, and environmental factors contribute to an increased likelihood of maltreatment. For example, learning theories suggest that individuals who have been raised in abusive or neglectful environments or have had limited experiences with positive relationships are likely to replicate these parenting behaviors with their own children (Ibid). Models however are only one aspect of the comprehensive effort to reducing the epidemic of child abuse and neglect that occurs in the United States every day. Not only is it surprising that it is usually a family member or close friend of the child that performs the malicious act of child abuse and/or neglect, but also stress can cause onset reactions towards underlying motivations to the action. Individuals under stress or lacking the emotional or financial capacity to deal with the demands of child rearing may lash out at their children. Still others argue that social policies that fail to nurture positive human interactions and leave communities without adequate social, health, or educational infrastructures create an environment ripe for abusive and violent behaviors (Ibid). On the neglect side of the issue, there are also many warning signs that the community needs to examine. An example could be that a home is normally empty with no adult supervision, while the children in the household cause issues in the community or the streets (Pennsylvania Family Support Alliance). Whether it is abuse or neglect that a community is dealing with, it is always crucial to start interpreting the root causes sooner rather than later. Early Prevention Recognizing the signs of abuse before they become a problem that can be solved without criminal or legal action can usually help people have a greater ability to cope. Moreover, it is useful to demonstrate to communities across the country that abuse and neglect are a global problem, and not just one found in the United States (Phakathi, 2009). If the issue were to hit closer to home such as a, husband or boyfriend of the victims mother, than it would not be as hard for the family to notice sexual abuse, according to a study done by the United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF) in association with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the United States of America (Ibid). Conversely in the same study it was found that, emotional abuse typically came from female relatives (Ibid). Naturally the information found from the study can be used to help recognize and prevent some of the frequently caused risk factors associated with abuse. In order to avoid the externalities that face communities if they do not take a path towards early intervention and prevention, it is helpful to remind them of the loved ones that are in danger if appropriate actions are not taken. Moreover, the pictures of missing children that appeared on milk cartons, billboards, and telephone books were and are constant reminders that untold numbers of children have disappeared, some possibly becoming victims of sexual abuse (Reppucci Haugaard, 1989, p. 1266). Reporting improper conduct can be a difficult aspect to swallow for those that are most at risk because they may not be mature enough to comprehend the gravity of the situation (Ibid). First, the child must recognize that he or she is in an abusive situation. Then the child must believe that he or she can and should take some sort of action. Finally, the child must possess and use specific self-protective skills (Ibid, p. 1267). According to the article Prevention of Child Sexual Abuse: My th or Reality by Reppucci and Haugaard (1989) they found that in order for programs to be effective they must also be age appropriate. Warning Signs Being highly perceptive to the needs of a community or to the needs of an individual child takes training and some common sense. A greater awareness cannot only save the lives of some but improve the lives of many. The research done from the website Helpsite.org on the topic of child abuse and neglect sheds some light on the subject. The warning signs that a child might exhibit include: Lack of trust and relationship difficulties Abuse by a primary caregiver damages the most fundamental relationship as a child that [they] will safely, reliably get [his or her] physical and emotional needs met by the person who is responsible for [his or her] care. Without this base, it is very difficult to learn to trust people or know who is trustworthy. This can lead to difficulty maintaining relationships due to fear of being controlled or abused. It can also lead to unhealthy relationships because the adult doesnt know what a good relationship is (Saisan, Smith, Segal, 2010). Core feelings of being worthless or damaged [Many are] told over and over again as a child that [they] are stupid or no good, it is very difficult to overcome these core feelings. [The child] may experience them as reality. Adults may not strive for more education, or settle for a job that may not pay enough, because they dont believe they can do it or are worth more (Saisan, Smith, Segal, 2010). Trouble regulating emotions Abused children cannot express emotions safely. As a result, the emotions get stuffed down, coming out in unexpected ways. Adult survivors of child abuse can struggle with unexplained anxiety, depression, or anger. They may turn to alcohol or drugs to numb out the painful feelings (Ibid). Prevention Programs Child abuse prevention efforts are of 3 general typesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦primary prevention effortsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ [which] address a broad segment of the population (such as all new parents), secondary prevention efforts, such as the home visitation (or nurse-family partnership) programà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦target a specific subset of the population considered to be at higher risk for child maltreatment, [and] tertiary prevention efforts target perpetrators of child maltreatment and seek primarily to prevent recidivism (Dias, et al., 2005). The most commonly used programs that fall under primary prevention are student education programs done in public schools. These programs are extremely popular, because they teach children at a very early age what abuse really is, and how to protect themselves against it. Because child abuse prevention education can be a very frightening introduction to sexual issues, (Whatley Trudell, 1988) many of these school based programs are taught as part of a larger p ersonal safety or health and wellness course. This also eases some parents objections that the subject matter is too intense for small children. In addition to arguments regarding subject matter, there are also opponents of school based abuse prevention instruction that feel these programs implicitly challenge the sanctity of the family (Whatley Trudell, 1988) by taking the power to educate children away from the parents. These detractors are in the minority, however, and as of 1991, 61% of all elementary schools report[ed] offering some kind of preventive education (Plummer, 2001). While these programs are popular with public schools nationally, Indiana itself has no law mandating sex abuse education courses, and there is no uniformity among the schools that do teach it. Some education classes are taught as aforementioned, in connection with the health and safety curriculum by the students teacher, while others are only taught briefly, during a special presentation for the class o r the entire school. Still other public schools, and many private schools do not teach the curriculum at all, due to limited funds, lack of staff, lack of trained staff, topic not viewed as a high priority, topic should be addressed by parents, [or] counselors handle the problem when necessaryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Lanning Massey-Stokes, 2006). Another common form of primary prevention efforts focus on educating the parents about child neglect, child abuse, and sexual abuse, before an incident arises; often before a child is even born. Because the highest percentage of victims of maltreatment are under the age of one (Wu, et al., 2004), many preventative programs seek to educate parents on how to deal with excessive crying, stress, or post-partum emotions before the birth of the child. One program, utilized in 16 New York hospitals required all families to undergo a Shaken Baby Syndrome tutorial, with bilingual leaflets, a short video, and a question and answer session with a nurse before they were permitted to be discharged (Dias, et al., 2005). Each parent also had to sign a contract stating that they had received the tutorial and understood the dangers of shaking their child. Evaluation of this program revealed that there was a statistically significant reduction in infant maltreatment, and more specifically Shaken Baby Syndrome among recipients of this educational program. There are other preventative programs for expectant teenage mothers, and even parenting education courses offered at many high schools. The state of Indiana offers public high school students a course titled Child Development and Parenting, which covers all aspects of parenting from nurturing a child, to how much money is necessary to meet the needs of a child, as well as how to handle stressful situations in a calm manner (Education, 2005). Many other primary preventative programs assist parents to maintain an adequate standard of parenting by providing parents with information about the challenges of parenting and the skills they need to parent effectively, and by enhancing their access to social supports (Tomison, 1998). These programs not only offer skills training and counseling, but partner with other government and non-governmental organizations that provide welfare services such as WIC, food stamps, and job training courses to help prevent the poverty and hopelessness that can lead to child neglect or abuse. There are also programs that offer education about sex abuse to parents, to help reiterate what their children are taught in school about the subject. Many parents do want to discuss this topic with their children, but studies have shown that many are ill informed about the subject, and may pass on incorrect information to their children. Parents often believe, and tell their children that child molesters are always male, and always strangers, when in fact, most abuse is perpetrated by someone the child knows quite well, who could be either male or female (Wurtele Kenny, 2010). Parents can also endanger their child when explaining what to do in a potential abuse situation. Many parents will tell their child to first say no or try to get away, but some parents will even tell their child to fight back against an abuser, which could have potentially life-threatening results. These educational programs can also inform parents what to do if they believe a child is being sexually abused. According to Wurtele, a study of parents who did not attend child abuse prevention workshops showed that parents more often mentioned notifying the victims parents or the abusers employer in response to a disclosure ofà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ child sexual abuse, (Wurtele Kenny, 2010) instead of notifying child protective services or the police department, which would have been the correct approach. Educating parents about sexual abuse not only gives them a better understanding of the truth about molestation, but also shows them the proper steps to take when confronted with abuse, and how to pass on correct information to their children. Secondary preventative efforts, or programs that target a specific at-risk sub-population are usually in home visitation programs where a social worker or trained nurse will visit the family and offer parent education and/or family support including information on health, nutrition and safety, and advice on the mother-child interactionand may also monitor the childs wellbeing and assist families to connect to other services and resources (Kovacs, 2003). Families that are selected for secondary preventative efforts are usually either identified as high risk for possible maltreatment, or have had issues of abuse previously and are being monitored by child protective services or another non-governmental agency. In the state of Indiana, Healthy Families Indiana uses a multi-tiered assessment process using participation in WIC and other state funded assistance programs, along with other variables to determine if a family falls under the high risk category, and thus into the voluntary home visitation program (IN.Gov, 2010). These programs help to reduce the stress of the parents, while simultaneously giving them the tools needed to get out of the high risk category through career training, monetary support with WIC and other welfare programs, and development of parenting skills. These visitations also allow the social worker to carefully monitor the child and the home for any signs of neglect or maltreatment before they arise or quickly enough afterward to begin counseling and limit the emotional or physical damage. Finally, tertiary prevention efforts are there to help families that have already suffered from a form of child abuse, and to prevent further abuse, or recidivism, from occurring. These programs are mostly state agencies such as child protective services, which monitor families much in the same way that they are monitored in the home visitation programs. The only difference is that this intervention is not voluntary on the part of the family, and the families are selected based on the specific criteria that abuse has already occurred in some form within the home, making these families even more at risk than any other group (Dias, et al., 2005). While there are distinct differences in the structure, targeted audience, and accessibility of each of the types of prevention efforts, all three have a common problem: awareness. Many organizations, especially non-profit organizations, are either ill equipped monetarily or lack the necessary marketing skills to advertise their programs within the community, and therefore fail to reach families that desperately need their services (Kovacs, 2003). Marketing outlets such as brochures, flyers, television and radio ads, as well as billboards not only increase awareness about the programs in a specific area, but also about the issue of child abuse, how important it is, and how it can and needs to be prevented. The Basics of Nonprofit Marketing In order understand why a public education campaign would be useful, appropriate, and feasible to a nonprofit organizations cause, one must first have some background information on how campaigns fit into the overall marketing strategy for an organization (Andreasen, 2008). Public Education Campaigns Public education campaigns send messages to target audiences in order raise awareness of social issues, change beliefs, and in some cases inspire a behavioral change (Tabachnick, 2001). The goal of a public education campaign is to motivate people and to change social behaviors and norms (Pollard, 2006). Public education campaigns are very important, because raising awareness around issues leads to behavioral and attitude changes, which leads to changes in actions and community norms (Tabachnick, 2001). For example, a child abuse and neglect prevention campaign geared towards adults could educate adults about what the signs of abuse are, then they can start to look for or identify possible signs of abuse when working with children, and eventually they will start to take action and call authorities when neglect happens, or talk with parents before the abuse even takes place. Specifically, a child abuse and neglect prevention campaign can translate complicated messages into specific, easily understood, messages about prevent, they can also reach a wider audience and educate more individuals. Once the campaign is actually implemented, it can reduce the marketing and communications staff time, because the messages are out there and going viral, the research, messages, and implementation strategies can also be reused for long-term projects (Ibid). In order to be upfront and proactive, it is important to address some of the drawbacks of public awareness campaigns. First of all, a successful and effective campaign will take many hours of staff time researching, planning and coordinating. Many organizations decide to work with a marketing and public relations firm to conduct their campaigns as to not take their staff away from every day duties (Ibid). In fact, some research suggests that it is a must for an individual to have worked with an advertising agency for a successful campaign. An ad agency represents a concentration of creative talent, production skills and proven marketing success, and they are skilled at analyzing public trends and communicating with specific target audiences. A public institution is unlikely to have these skills (Murray Seabeastan). Secondly, campaigns using mass media may not connect with every audience member. Some may feel that the message is not geared toward them and are not relevant. Often time s campaign messages are too complicated and confuse people with new concepts and requests. The golden rule in this instance should be less is more (Ibid). Another drawback is that campaigns can be very difficult to assess their effectiveness. One cannot easily judge how many drove by and actually read a billboard, watched the PSA, listened and remembered the radio ad, etc. This can be very costly to assess who was affected positively by the campaign in large communities (Tabachnick, 2001). Best Practices in Public Education Campaigns There are several ways to conduct public education campaigns, and in fact, there is no one right way. All organizations research, plan, implement and evaluate their campaigns very differently, and have different resources, inputs, and experts guiding this process. However, through research, there are several best practices that have emerged to conduct an impactful and lasting public education campaign. Some of the best practices include: identifying the scope and location, researching the target audiences, messaging, goals, implementation steps, evaluation techniques, updates on campaign, and conducting a reminder campaign. Stop It Now!, a national child sexual abuse prevention program with affiliates in several states, did a great job creating local campaigns and identifying the correct scope for each location. Each of their public education campaigns conducted were based off of their local needs, local stakeholders and had a local look and feel in regards to messaging. Examples of focus areas and specific target audiences messaging for different state campaigns include: Georgias focus is on bystanders caring adults in a position to help, Virginias focus trusting your gut, Philadelphias focus is on warning signs, and Minnesotas focus is on targeting the challenged population. Focusing on local audiences avoids stereotypes, while honoring stakeholder expectations and local sensitivities and proves for a more successful campaign that effectively reaches campaign goals (Tabachnick, 2001). One of the first full-scale public health campaigns designed to target adults for prevention occurred in Vermont, and depended upon a plethora of research to implement a successful campaign. Officials first reviewed the publics attitudes, awareness, knowledge that adults face as obstacles to preventing child abuse (Ibid). Through research they identified several obstacles, such as characteristics of an abuser and enabing factors. Once this background research was conducted, the public education campaign strategies could be planned, implemented and evaluated. When a campaign chooses a message, it is important to be consistent and to use the same one throughout all media channels in order to stick with the public. The messages may also need to be translated or re-written for diverse cultures to identify with (Ibid). An example of this comes from, Paro, a nonprofit health care provider located in San Francisco that was reaching out to a diverse group of local residents that come for low-income homes. The organization was not seeing an increase in the number of clients served and the residents that were aware of their helpful programs. Therefore, the organization made a strategic communications decision to focus on translation services, sensitivity to cultural differences, and response to public feedback. They began by translating their marketing materials in various venues at an appropriate reading level including outdoor billboards and posters, collateral material and their website. Then, they created separate documents for each ethnic gro up in their service region (Hispanics, Vietnamese and Chinese) and paid close attention to the colors of the documents to not offend any particular culture. Finally, Paro made an assertive effort to hire more multicultural employees and set up a member advisory committee. This campaign was literally designed for and by the residents benefiting from Paro services (Nastu, 2007). When planning and public education campaign, it is important to remember that thoughtful well-written messages that the target audience identifies with, need to be future oriented and support solutions that are helpful and essential for the whole community (Hughes, 2009). Once a scope, location, target audience, and messaging is identified, then one can start to implement their campaign through a variety of steps and marketing and public relations strategies. There are many examples of way organizations implement their public education campaigns, which include: hotlines, educational vides, advertising on tv, radio, and print media, public service announcements, pocket guides, social marketing, websites, billboards, transit advertising, community action kits, posters, educational booklets, as well as promotional materials such as t-shirts, wrist